Corporate & Commercial Law
We offer in-depth experience across a range of commercial sectors, combining legal expertise and market knowledge with a thorough understanding of our clients' businesses to deliver advice that is both pragmatic and cost effective.
Corporate & Commercial Law Services
Our lawyers coordinate complex transactions, deal with regulatory requirements, advise on tax matters, manage due diligence investigations and prepare all required documentation. Our key focus areas are:
Black Economic Empowerment
Our Black Economic Empowerment (BEE) team is widely recognised as being one of the most knowledgeable and experienced BEE regulatory teams. Our expertise includes advising on the Broad-Based BEE Act, the Codes of Good Practice, Transformation Charters and Sector Codes, and related legislation and regulations.
Our experience is deep and varied and covers a wide range of advisory services. Click here to learn more.
Companies Act
When the 'new' Companies Act, No 71 of 2008 came into force on 1 May 2011, it marked the beginning of a significant era for corporate law in South Africa. Although much of the old law was retained, many significant new concepts and changes were introduced. CDH is well positioned to help our clients to comply with the legislation. We also offer training tailored to your business needs to help you meet your obligations.
Click here to read more.
Corporate Governance
In recognising the evolving needs of our local and global clients who are expanding their business operations on the continent and further afield as well as the increased governance risks, we provide a full corporate governance and regulation service within the Corporate and Commercial practice, which has local and global corporate governance expertise.
Read more about our services here.
Equity Capital Markets
Equity capital markets (ECM) are evolving fast within the current market environment. New options for growth are being created. However, this often comes with more complex choices and challenges that complicate capital market decisions. Any company on a growth trajectory needs a legal advisor with a proven track record and expertise across the full ECM spectrum. With our tailored advisory and solutions-based approach, CDH is the right legal partner in any ECM project.
Click here to read more.
Listings, Stock Exchanges & Public Documents
Our Corporate & Commercial practice acts for a number of the top 100 Johannesburg Stock Exchange listed companies, companies listed on major international bourses and companies with dual or multiple listings.
Click here to read more.
Merger & Acquisitions
We close deals effectively by providing exceptional legal advice, managing risk, ensuring you meet regulatory compliance and working at every aspect of the transaction to ensure that it works from a legal and commercial perspective. Click here for more.
Private Equity
Our Private Equity team has in-depth experience of African transactions. In addition, we have immediate access to a vast network of relationship firms across the continent. We are therefore able to move quickly and seamlessly on local and international transactions. Learn more here.
Technology & Communications
Our Technology & Communications team uses its understanding of the technology sector to deliver cost-effective and innovate solutions for both suppliers and consumers. Learn more here.
Corporate & Commercial Law Brochures
Services
Corporate & Commercial Law Services
Our lawyers coordinate complex transactions, deal with regulatory requirements, advise on tax matters, manage due diligence investigations and prepare all required documentation. Our key focus areas are:
Black Economic Empowerment
Our Black Economic Empowerment (BEE) team is widely recognised as being one of the most knowledgeable and experienced BEE regulatory teams. Our expertise includes advising on the Broad-Based BEE Act, the Codes of Good Practice, Transformation Charters and Sector Codes, and related legislation and regulations.
Our experience is deep and varied and covers a wide range of advisory services. Click here to learn more.
Companies Act
When the 'new' Companies Act, No 71 of 2008 came into force on 1 May 2011, it marked the beginning of a significant era for corporate law in South Africa. Although much of the old law was retained, many significant new concepts and changes were introduced. CDH is well positioned to help our clients to comply with the legislation. We also offer training tailored to your business needs to help you meet your obligations.
Click here to read more.
Corporate Governance
In recognising the evolving needs of our local and global clients who are expanding their business operations on the continent and further afield as well as the increased governance risks, we provide a full corporate governance and regulation service within the Corporate and Commercial practice, which has local and global corporate governance expertise.
Read more about our services here.
Equity Capital Markets
Equity capital markets (ECM) are evolving fast within the current market environment. New options for growth are being created. However, this often comes with more complex choices and challenges that complicate capital market decisions. Any company on a growth trajectory needs a legal advisor with a proven track record and expertise across the full ECM spectrum. With our tailored advisory and solutions-based approach, CDH is the right legal partner in any ECM project.
Click here to read more.
Listings, Stock Exchanges & Public Documents
Our Corporate & Commercial practice acts for a number of the top 100 Johannesburg Stock Exchange listed companies, companies listed on major international bourses and companies with dual or multiple listings.
Click here to read more.
Merger & Acquisitions
We close deals effectively by providing exceptional legal advice, managing risk, ensuring you meet regulatory compliance and working at every aspect of the transaction to ensure that it works from a legal and commercial perspective. Click here for more.
Private Equity
Our Private Equity team has in-depth experience of African transactions. In addition, we have immediate access to a vast network of relationship firms across the continent. We are therefore able to move quickly and seamlessly on local and international transactions. Learn more here.
Technology & Communications
Our Technology & Communications team uses its understanding of the technology sector to deliver cost-effective and innovate solutions for both suppliers and consumers. Learn more here.
Brochures
Corporate & Commercial Law Brochures
Corporate & Commercial Lawyers
Our lawyers coordinate complex transactions, deal with regulatory requirements, advise on tax matters, manage due diligence investigations and prepare all required documentation.
Our Corporate & Commercial LawyersOur Work
Featured
CDH's Corporate & Commercial practice advises Airlink
CDH's Corporate and Commercial practice advises Airlink on the agreement reached for Qatar Airways to acquire a 25% stake in Airlink.
CDH advised Lallemand Inc and Rymco Proprietary Limited
CDH advised Lallemand Inc and Rymco Proprietary Limited in relation to the acquisition of the Bovril and Marmite business unit and Savoury Foods Ingredients business unit from Pioneer Foods Groceries (Pty) Ltd (part of PepsiCo South Africa Proprietary Limited).
CDH advises Metier on successful final close of Metier Capital Growth Fund III
Cliffe Dekker Hofmeyr Inc. (CDH), is pleased to announce its role in advising Metier Investment & Advisory Services Proprietary Limited (Metier) on the successful final close of Metier Capital Growth Fund III (Fund), which raised over US$219 million, surpassing its target of US$200 million.
CDH advises Old Mutual Private Equity in relation to the disposal of its investment in Chill and Inhle Beverages to an Alterra Capital Partners-led consortium
CDH advises Old Mutual Private Equity in relation to the disposal of its investment in Chill and Inhle Beverages to an Alterra Capital Partners-led consortium
CDH represented the Doornhoek project company and its majority shareholder and project sponsor, AMEA Power Limited
CDH represented the Doornhoek project company and its majority shareholder and project sponsor, AMEA Power Limited, in reaching financial close of the 120MW (AC) solar photovoltaic facility at Doornhoek, near Klerksdorp in the Noth West Province of South Africa.
CDH advises M&C Saatchi South Africa
CDH advises M&C Saatchi South Africa leadership team in relation to its acquisition of all the shares in M&C Saatchi South Africa held by M&C Saatchi plc.
All
Clientèle Limited and Telesure Investment Holdings Proprietary Limited
CDH advised both Clientèle Limited and Telesure Investment Holdings Proprietary Limited on Clientèle's acquisition of 1Life Insurance Limited and Telesure's acquisition of 26% of Clientèle. The transaction, a category 1 transaction under the JSE Listings Requirements, is worth approximately R1,914 billion. The transaction is subject to certain conditions precedent which are expected to be fulfilled or waived by the end of September 2024.
1Life's operations in the underwritten direct and intermediated life insurance market and the funeral mass market will enhance Clientèle's already diversified financial services product offering to the South African market.
FNZ
Kieti represented FNZ, the leading UK-based global platform as a service company specialising in providing investment platforms to major financial institutions in the financial services and wealth management sectors. Our Kenya-based corporate/M&A team advised FNZ on Kenya merger control issues in relation to FNZ’s acquisition of Silica. Our work on this matter demonstrates our year-round role advising clients in connection with cross-border transactions, here with a significant competition law component.
PayGo Energy
Advised Arrowhead and Gemgrow, both South Africa-based property funds, on the reverse takeover of Gemgrow by Arrowhead, in terms of which Gemgrow acquired all of the Arrowhead shares by way of a scheme of arrangement.
Senwes Group
Advised ZARX-listed Senwes Group, one of South Africa's largest agribusinesses, and KLK Landbou Limited, a large farming services specialist in the Northern Cape, on Senwes Group's purchase of a majority shareholding in KLK, whilst simultaneously overcoming a competing hostile takeover bid, already launched by one of KLK's existing shareholders.
Caixa Geral de Depósitos
Advised Caixa Geral de Depósitos, S.A., the leading Portugal-based state-owned banking corporation, as South African counsel, on its disposal of 100% of its shareholding in Mercantile Bank Holdings to Capitec Bank.
Séché Environnement
Advised Séché Environnement S.A., the leading France-based group which provides environmental management solutions globally, in its take-private acquisition of 100% of the issued share capital of South African waste management company, Interwaste Holdings, by way of a scheme of arrangement. Following the implementation of the scheme, Interwaste was delisted from the main board of JSE.
Metier Capital Growth Fund II Partnership and Metier Capital Growth Fund II Investments
Advised Metier Capital Growth Fund II Partnership and Metier Capital Growth Fund II Investments, leading South African and Mauritius private equity investment vehicles, in their take-private acquisition of 100% of the issued share capital of South African packaging company, Master Plastics, by way of a scheme of arrangement. Following the implementation of the scheme, Master Plastics was delisted from the main board of JSE.
Vukile Property Fund
Advised Vukile Property Fund Limited, one of South Africa's premier REITs, in the indirect acquisition of 4 retail centres in Spain from Unibail Rodamco. This marked a significant step in its offshore expansion.
Old Mutual Emerging Markets
Advised Old Mutual Emerging Markets Proprietary Limited (OMEM), which owns 100% of the issued share capital of Old Mutual (South Africa) Holdings (OMSA), which in turn held 100% of the issued share capital of UK-based, OM Latin America HoldCo UK (OMLAH) and 100% of the issued share capital of Panama-based, AIVA Holdings Group (AIVA). We advised OMSA in the sale of its 100% shareholding in OMLAH and AIVA, thereby also transferring indirect ownership of various companies falling under these entities. The transaction involved numerous countries across 4 continents, their local laws and the sale of shares in a highly-regulated industry.
Our Work
CDH's Corporate & Commercial practice advises Airlink
CDH's Corporate and Commercial practice advises Airlink on the agreement reached for Qatar Airways to acquire a 25% stake in Airlink.
CDH advised Lallemand Inc and Rymco Proprietary Limited
CDH advised Lallemand Inc and Rymco Proprietary Limited in relation to the acquisition of the Bovril and Marmite business unit and Savoury Foods Ingredients business unit from Pioneer Foods Groceries (Pty) Ltd (part of PepsiCo South Africa Proprietary Limited).
CDH advises Metier on successful final close of Metier Capital Growth Fund III
Cliffe Dekker Hofmeyr Inc. (CDH), is pleased to announce its role in advising Metier Investment & Advisory Services Proprietary Limited (Metier) on the successful final close of Metier Capital Growth Fund III (Fund), which raised over US$219 million, surpassing its target of US$200 million.
CDH advises Old Mutual Private Equity in relation to the disposal of its investment in Chill and Inhle Beverages to an Alterra Capital Partners-led consortium
CDH advises Old Mutual Private Equity in relation to the disposal of its investment in Chill and Inhle Beverages to an Alterra Capital Partners-led consortium
CDH represented the Doornhoek project company and its majority shareholder and project sponsor, AMEA Power Limited
CDH represented the Doornhoek project company and its majority shareholder and project sponsor, AMEA Power Limited, in reaching financial close of the 120MW (AC) solar photovoltaic facility at Doornhoek, near Klerksdorp in the Noth West Province of South Africa.
CDH advises M&C Saatchi South Africa
CDH advises M&C Saatchi South Africa leadership team in relation to its acquisition of all the shares in M&C Saatchi South Africa held by M&C Saatchi plc.
Clientèle Limited and Telesure Investment Holdings Proprietary Limited
CDH advised both Clientèle Limited and Telesure Investment Holdings Proprietary Limited on Clientèle's acquisition of 1Life Insurance Limited and Telesure's acquisition of 26% of Clientèle. The transaction, a category 1 transaction under the JSE Listings Requirements, is worth approximately R1,914 billion. The transaction is subject to certain conditions precedent which are expected to be fulfilled or waived by the end of September 2024.
1Life's operations in the underwritten direct and intermediated life insurance market and the funeral mass market will enhance Clientèle's already diversified financial services product offering to the South African market.
FNZ
Kieti represented FNZ, the leading UK-based global platform as a service company specialising in providing investment platforms to major financial institutions in the financial services and wealth management sectors. Our Kenya-based corporate/M&A team advised FNZ on Kenya merger control issues in relation to FNZ’s acquisition of Silica. Our work on this matter demonstrates our year-round role advising clients in connection with cross-border transactions, here with a significant competition law component.
PayGo Energy
Advised Arrowhead and Gemgrow, both South Africa-based property funds, on the reverse takeover of Gemgrow by Arrowhead, in terms of which Gemgrow acquired all of the Arrowhead shares by way of a scheme of arrangement.
Senwes Group
Advised ZARX-listed Senwes Group, one of South Africa's largest agribusinesses, and KLK Landbou Limited, a large farming services specialist in the Northern Cape, on Senwes Group's purchase of a majority shareholding in KLK, whilst simultaneously overcoming a competing hostile takeover bid, already launched by one of KLK's existing shareholders.
Caixa Geral de Depósitos
Advised Caixa Geral de Depósitos, S.A., the leading Portugal-based state-owned banking corporation, as South African counsel, on its disposal of 100% of its shareholding in Mercantile Bank Holdings to Capitec Bank.
Séché Environnement
Advised Séché Environnement S.A., the leading France-based group which provides environmental management solutions globally, in its take-private acquisition of 100% of the issued share capital of South African waste management company, Interwaste Holdings, by way of a scheme of arrangement. Following the implementation of the scheme, Interwaste was delisted from the main board of JSE.
Metier Capital Growth Fund II Partnership and Metier Capital Growth Fund II Investments
Advised Metier Capital Growth Fund II Partnership and Metier Capital Growth Fund II Investments, leading South African and Mauritius private equity investment vehicles, in their take-private acquisition of 100% of the issued share capital of South African packaging company, Master Plastics, by way of a scheme of arrangement. Following the implementation of the scheme, Master Plastics was delisted from the main board of JSE.
Vukile Property Fund
Advised Vukile Property Fund Limited, one of South Africa's premier REITs, in the indirect acquisition of 4 retail centres in Spain from Unibail Rodamco. This marked a significant step in its offshore expansion.
Old Mutual Emerging Markets
Advised Old Mutual Emerging Markets Proprietary Limited (OMEM), which owns 100% of the issued share capital of Old Mutual (South Africa) Holdings (OMSA), which in turn held 100% of the issued share capital of UK-based, OM Latin America HoldCo UK (OMLAH) and 100% of the issued share capital of Panama-based, AIVA Holdings Group (AIVA). We advised OMSA in the sale of its 100% shareholding in OMLAH and AIVA, thereby also transferring indirect ownership of various companies falling under these entities. The transaction involved numerous countries across 4 continents, their local laws and the sale of shares in a highly-regulated industry.
Corporate & Commercial Law News
More newsTo guarantee or not to guarantee? Rights of recourse against a principal debtor
The case of Nedbank Limited v Xanita (Pty) Limited (885/2019) ZAWCHC 144 (12 June 2023) addressed and clarified the principles surrounding a guarantee and the right of recourse that a guarantor has against a principal debtor. The case also assessed the legal obligations of a guarantor in comparison to that of a surety.
The need to know of “casual vacancies”
The stability of a company’s board of directors is vital in maintaining good corporate governance. This stability may be challenged where unforeseen circumstances, such as death, sudden resignations or incapacity, give rise to vacancies on the board. The Companies Act 71 of 2008 (Companies Act) provides a process to be followed for filling such vacancies, which is, of course, subject to the company’s memorandum of incorporation (MOI). The question that often arises is: how soon does a casual vacancy have to be filled before it is no longer considered a “ vacancy ”?
Regulatory challenges in cross-border African M&A: A brief overview
Africa’s dynamic economic landscape presents immense opportunities for cross-border mergers and acquisitions (M&A). With abundant natural resources, expanding markets and deepening regional integration, the continent continues to attract investors seeking growth and diversification. Yet, this potential is tempered by the continent’s regulatory complexity. Africa’s legal and regulatory environment is diverse, shaped by a mix of common law systems, as seen in South Africa, and civil law systems, particularly in Francophone West Africa. This diversity demands not only a tailored approach but also an acute awareness of jurisdictional nuances.
Market recognition
- Chambers Global 2015-2024 rank our Corporate/M&A practice in Band 1.
- The Legal 500 EMEA 2018-2024 recognises us as Tier 1 in commercial, corporate/M&A.
- The Legal 500 EMEA 2023–2024 recommends our Kenya commercial, corporate/M&A practice in Tier 3.
- IFLR1000 2024 ranked CDH Kenya in Tier 3 for M&A.
- IFLR1000 2017-2024 ranks the firm in M&A - Tier 1. IFLR1000 2016 ranks the firm in M&A - Tier 2.
DealMakers Africa
- 2nd by M&A Deal Flow.
- 2nd by General Corporate Finance Deal Flow (tie).
- 2nd by Pan African M & A Deal Flow (tie).
DealMakers 2023
- 2023 1st by M&A Listed Deal Flow.
- 2023 2nd by M&A Unlisted Deal Flow.
- 2023 2nd by M&A Unlisted Deal Value.
- 2023 2nd by M&A Listed & Unlisted BEE Deal Flow.
- 2023 2nd by General Corporate Finance Deal Value.
- 2023 4th by General Corporate Finance Deal Flow.
DealMakers 2022
- 2022 1st by M&A Listed Deal Flow
- 2022 3rd by M&A Listed Deal Value
- 2022 3rd by M&A Unlisted Deal Value
- 2022 3rd by M&A Unlisted Deal Flow
- 2022 3rd by General Corporate Finance Deal Flow
DealMakers 2021
- 2021 1st by M&A Deal Flow
- 2021 2nd by General Corporate Finance Deal Flow
- 2021 2nd by BEE Deal Value
- 2021 3rd by General Corporate Finance Deal Value
- 2021 3rd by BEE Deal Flow
- 2021 4th by M&A Deal Value
- 2020 1st by M&A Deal Flow
- 2020 1st by BEE Deal Flow
DealMakers 2018 - 2020
- 2020 1st by BEE Deal Value
- 2020 2nd by General Corporate Finance Deal Flow
- 2020 2nd by General Corporate Finance Deal Value
- 2020 3rd by M&A Deal Value
- 2020 Catalyst Private Equity Deal of the Year
- M&A Legal DealMakers of the Decade 2010 – 2019 (Deal Flow)
- Dealmakers 2019 - 1st by BEE M&A Deal Flow
- Dealmakers 2019 - 1st by General Corporate Finance Deal Flow
- Dealmakers 2019 - 2nd by M&A Deal Value
- Dealmakers 2019 - 2nd by M&A Deal Flow
- Dealmakers 2018 - 1st by M&A Deal Flow for the 10th year in a row.
- Dealmakers 2018 - 1st by M&A Deal Value.
- Dealmakers 2018 - 2nd by General Corporate Finance Deal Flow.
- Dealmakers 2018 - 1st by BEE M&A Deal Value.
- Dealmakers 2018 - 2nd by BEE M&A Deal Flow.
- Dealmakers 2018 - Lead legal advisers on the Private Equity Deal of the Year.
Market recognition
- Chambers Global 2015-2024 rank our Corporate/M&A practice in Band 1.
- The Legal 500 EMEA 2018-2024 recognises us as Tier 1 in commercial, corporate/M&A.
- The Legal 500 EMEA 2023–2024 recommends our Kenya commercial, corporate/M&A practice in Tier 3.
- IFLR1000 2024 ranked CDH Kenya in Tier 3 for M&A.
- IFLR1000 2017-2024 ranks the firm in M&A - Tier 1. IFLR1000 2016 ranks the firm in M&A - Tier 2.
DealMakers Africa
- 2nd by M&A Deal Flow.
- 2nd by General Corporate Finance Deal Flow (tie).
- 2nd by Pan African M & A Deal Flow (tie).
DealMakers 2023
- 2023 1st by M&A Listed Deal Flow.
- 2023 2nd by M&A Unlisted Deal Flow.
- 2023 2nd by M&A Unlisted Deal Value.
- 2023 2nd by M&A Listed & Unlisted BEE Deal Flow.
- 2023 2nd by General Corporate Finance Deal Value.
- 2023 4th by General Corporate Finance Deal Flow.
DealMakers 2022
- 2022 1st by M&A Listed Deal Flow
- 2022 3rd by M&A Listed Deal Value
- 2022 3rd by M&A Unlisted Deal Value
- 2022 3rd by M&A Unlisted Deal Flow
- 2022 3rd by General Corporate Finance Deal Flow
DealMakers 2021
- 2021 1st by M&A Deal Flow
- 2021 2nd by General Corporate Finance Deal Flow
- 2021 2nd by BEE Deal Value
- 2021 3rd by General Corporate Finance Deal Value
- 2021 3rd by BEE Deal Flow
- 2021 4th by M&A Deal Value
- 2020 1st by M&A Deal Flow
- 2020 1st by BEE Deal Flow
DealMakers 2018 - 2020
- 2020 1st by BEE Deal Value
- 2020 2nd by General Corporate Finance Deal Flow
- 2020 2nd by General Corporate Finance Deal Value
- 2020 3rd by M&A Deal Value
- 2020 Catalyst Private Equity Deal of the Year
- M&A Legal DealMakers of the Decade 2010 – 2019 (Deal Flow)
- Dealmakers 2019 - 1st by BEE M&A Deal Flow
- Dealmakers 2019 - 1st by General Corporate Finance Deal Flow
- Dealmakers 2019 - 2nd by M&A Deal Value
- Dealmakers 2019 - 2nd by M&A Deal Flow
- Dealmakers 2018 - 1st by M&A Deal Flow for the 10th year in a row.
- Dealmakers 2018 - 1st by M&A Deal Value.
- Dealmakers 2018 - 2nd by General Corporate Finance Deal Flow.
- Dealmakers 2018 - 1st by BEE M&A Deal Value.
- Dealmakers 2018 - 2nd by BEE M&A Deal Flow.
- Dealmakers 2018 - Lead legal advisers on the Private Equity Deal of the Year.
Happy Clients
"They provide different thoughts on a number of key points, both from commercial and legal perspectives."
Chambers Global 2024
"We have done several cross-border deals with them and the lawyers at Cliffe Dekker Hofmeyr are consistently excellent."
Chambers Global 2024
"Their knowledge of the law is outstanding. They are always practical in their commercial approach, and to the point."
Chambers Global 2024
"The team's approach and advice is solution-based and strategic."
Chambers Global 2024
The lawyers have good knowledge of the law and an ability to integrate this with the commercial realities." Notable Practitioners
Chambers Global 2023
‘The partners and associates that we have worked with at Cliffe Dekker Hofmeyr have excellent business acumen and understanding which helps so much with briefing the facts of a case or detailing where legal assistance or commercial contracts are required.’
Legal 500 EMEA 2023
‘An absolutely outstanding team. They are up to speed with current legislation and relevant publications. The cross collaboration amongst their teams is evident in various requests I have sent their way. The partnerships are always great and very professional. The firm has evolved with the times and shown that its capable of working remotely and delivering a service digitally as well.’
Legal 500 EMEA 2023
From vision to fruition.
Related Expertise
Agriculture, Aquaculture & Fishing
We use our expertise across our disciplines to support our clients' growth and sustainability in the agriculture, aquaculture, and fishing sectors.
Black Economic Empowerment (BEE)
The BEE service offering is widely recognised as being one of the most knowledgeable and experienced BEE regulatory teams in South Africa.
The Companies Act
CDH is well positioned to help your company ensure compliance with the legislation. We also offer training tailored to your business needs to help you meet your obligations.
Corporate Governance
We provide a full corporate governance and regulation service within the Corporate and Commercial practice.
Data Protection & Privacy
At CDH we are dedicated to safeguarding your data journey.
Intellectual Property
Listings, Stock Exchanges & Public Documents
We act for a number of top listed companies and offer a full suite of services to public companies.
Mergers & Acquisitions
CDH’s lawyers balance legal knowledge with commercial understanding to support our clients’ best interests.
Mining & Minerals
We help our clients navigate legal and administrative complexities in this key economic sector.
Oil & Gas
Our Oil and Gas team has substantial legal expertise across the value chain.
Private Equity
Experts from across our specialist practice areas advise on private equity matters.
Projects & Energy
We have an excellent understanding of the sector and use this to help clients maximise value and mitigate their risk.
Technology, Media & Telecommunications
Delivering practical legal advice and commercial solutions.